Lights and Sounds Museum Essay

When I first heard of the Lights and Sounds Museum, I thought I was just going to watch an ordinary show about the making of Intramuros. But when I entered a big room, standing, and with lights all turned off, I felt I was up for something more exciting that day. The Lights and Sounds Museum wasn’t just a museum, it was an experience center! A diorama of one of the battles fought between the Filipinos and the Spaniards. The museum was divided into different rooms. Each one of them is depicting some of the highlights of the Philippine history. It has dioramas- moving replicas of people and objects placed in scenes that tell the remarkable stories of the Philippines’ past. Statues of the different Filipino heroes were placed inside the Lights and Sounds Museum. Each scene is to be â€Å"experienced† one by one. It is dramatically narrated by a voice over with some background music. The lights are also in place to direct the attention of the audience to the main characters. A tour facilitator is also present to lead the audience from one room to another. We were brought to Europe inside the Lights and Sounds Museum and experienced the life of Jose Rizal and his fellow Filipinos when they were there. The life of Jose Rizal was one of the highlights in the Lights and Sound Museum. It was an instant trip to Europe when we were brought by the tour facilitator to Jose Rizal’s life in Spain and Germany. The publishing of La Solidaridad. We were able to â€Å"experience† the national hero’s life through the images being depicted in the dioramas. The dioramas were not anymore at their best conditions today but I still enjoyed the entire show, nonetheless. The different characters from Noli Me Tangere. There was even a room showcasing the characters of Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. It was nice to go back once again to the novels written by Jose Rizal. This time, with life-size dioramas and dramatic narrations. The friars warned the Filipinos about reading Rizal’s novels. The Lights and Sounds Museum was a project of the former Tourism Secretary, Richard Gordon. The aim of the museum is to retell the history of the Philippines to local and foreign visitors in an interactive and fun setting. The building of Intramuros. Another highlight of the show is the story of how Intramuros, the Walled City, was built. This topic wasn’t discussed that much during my classes in history in high school and college. The Filipinos weren’t allowed to enter inside Intramuros- except the slaves. Because of the Lights and Sounds Museum, I have learned that ordinary Filipinos- except the special guests and the slaves- weren’t allowed to enter the walls of Intramuros back then. It was exclusive to the Spaniards- the government officials, the friars and their guests. It was also said that the Spaniards made it a very happy place. Spaniards held feasts inside it every now and then, leaving the Filipinos outside hungry and oppressed. A diorama of Jose Rizal when he was imprisoned in Fort Santiago. Lights and Sounds Museum is located at Sta. Lucia cor. Victoria Sts. The tour requires a minimum fee of PhP 1,000 per tour. The first show starts at 10:00 AM and the last show at 6:00 PM. For reservations or inquiries, you may contact (02) 524 2827.

How does U.A.Fanthorpe create different personalities within the poems ‘Not My Best side’ and ‘Old Man, Old Man’? Essay

‘Not My Best Side’ and ‘Old Man, Old Man’, both by U.A.Fanthorpe, create different personalities and changes within these throughout the poems. Fanthorpe uses humour, different styles of language, imagery and stereotypes to put her point across. ‘Not My Best Side’ is based on Uccello’s painting from the Renaissance period, of St. George and the Dragon. Fanthorpe has in many ways reversed the personalities portrayed in the picture, and used modern stereotypes to show how hard it is to break out of stereotypes created by society. ‘Old Man, Old Man’ focuses more on change. It uses the stereotypes of an old man and a successful businessman. A narrator, who can be taken to be the old man’s daughter, tells the poem ‘Old Man, Old Man’. The poem uses imagery and different poetic techniques to strengthen the imagery and personalities. One of the main techniques used in both poems is enjambment. In ‘Not My Best Side’ it involves the reader and encourages them to guess what is about to happen. Alternatively, in ‘Old Man, Old Man’ it creates an element of confusion, giving the reader an in-sight into the old man’s feelings. ‘Now you ramble / In your talk around London districts, fretting / At how to find your way from Holborn to Soho.’ This highlights the confusion an old man is feeling as he begins to forget things that were once well known, and realises he is not as independent as he once was. The ‘insignificant’ memory lapse with use of enjambment persuades the reader to stop and feel empathy for the old man, similarly enjambment emphasises the word ‘fretting’. Enjambment also creates suspense in ‘Not My Best Side’, in the dragon’s case. ‘I don’t mind dying / Ritually, since I will always rise again,’ In ‘Old Man, Old Man’ Fanthorpe uses the change of pronoun to show the proximity between the old man and the narrator. Fanthorpe talks in the first half of the poem about the old man when he was younger. It is much less personal than in the second half, when he is an old man and their relationship has become much closer. ‘He was always/ A man who did-it-himself.’ We can tell this is less personal because Fanthorpe has used the pronoun ‘he’ whereas later in the poem, as the relationship is possibly closer, the narrator is talking directly to the old man and so uses ‘you’. ‘He’ is used to distinguish between past and present. It shows how the father – daughter relationship has become closer in the man’s old age because he actually needs his daughter. Fanthorpe proceeds to change the pronoun ‘he’ to ‘you’. This shows how the old man has altered, as well as reflecting the change in the relationship with his daughter. ‘He’, being less personal, also hints at how the daughter thinks of her father as a young man and her father now he is old as two completely different people when in reality they are the same. In ‘Not My Best Side’ if the change in the father’s personality was less important I expect Fanthorpe would have used ‘you wer e’. ‘When I left you tried not to cry’ Here the use of ‘you’ shows up the new, personal relationship between father and daughter. The daughter is talking directly to her father about who he has become. In the present, where ‘you’ is used, the father has become weaker and, even though he dislikes admitting it, needs his daughter’s help. Fanthorpe also uses the descriptions of objects in ‘Old Man, Old Man’ to hint at this new ‘weakness’. ‘recalcitrant / Things in bottles,’ describes not only disorderly things in bottles, but could also address the possible disobedience of his daughters, the memory loss and ageing which he cannot control either. In ‘Old Man, Old Man’ Fanthorpe used a variety of colloquial and poetic language. The poetic language is mainly towards the end of the poem and involves the reader as he tries to comprehend it, as well as show the old man’s confusion as he comes to terms with his amnesia. ‘So obdurate in your contracted world’ shows how the old man is still stubborn, selfish and too proud to be truly thankful for his daughter’s assistance. The more difficult poetic language conveys confusion, through the reader’s feelings towards the language, as well as the physical change in the old man. ‘I am only a cloud’ suggests he is going blind, so that his daughter is a cloud in his vision. The form of the poems varies totally. Both are free verse, therefore having no specific metre. ‘Not My Best Side’ particularly relies on the layout because of its significant three stanzas. There is no other way that this poem could be laid out without confusing the character’s points of view, or making the meaning of the poem unclear. If the stanzas were all ‘stuck’ together in one long verse, the characters still would not stand out and the appearance of the poem may be less appealing, looking more like a long mass of words. Humour is used in ‘Not My Best Side’ to make the poem more enjoyable while having a serious underlying point. The humour is successful because, although the poem is based on a medieval story, the language is very modern and gives the verses a comical twist. Fanthorpe refers to modern day issues, like acne, to give the poem humour, ‘I mean, / What was he like underneath all the hardware? / He might have acne, black heads or even / Bad breath for all I could tell,’ I find the tone of this statement humorous because looks are a definite issue today, and a medieval maiden thinking like that – is it normal?! The fact that looks, acne and bad breath are such big issues today, helps present the point that it is very difficult to break out of the stereotypes set by society, as well as making the characters seem real to the reader. These modern stereotypes allow the characters to break out of the stereotypes set by the painting and so, I think, Fanthorpe is trying to say that we should get to know the real person and not be judgmental and discriminatory. In the picture of St. George and the dragon there are three stereotypes – the evil dragon, the helpless maiden and the knight in shining armour. Fanthorpe has changed those in the picture to a new and modern, but equally stereotypical set. However the characters remain in the same situation: the maiden is still the captive, the dragon is still the captor and the knight is saving the maiden. Therefore Fanthorpe has merely changed their personalities, not the situation. ‘Why should my victim be so / unattractive as to be inedible,’ Shows how today the maiden is no longer considered beautiful, thus showing the change of perceptions, especially of the dragon. While changing the stereotypes set by the myth, the poem challenges them at the same time. In the poem the knight is vain and ladish, ‘You can’t / Do better than me at the moment’ and is not the ‘knight in shining armour’ as represented in the picture. The dragon comes across very differently in the poem, he appears to be shy and self-conscious shown in the first line by ‘Not my best side, I’m afraid’. The dragon is more of a victim than the maiden, being victimised by the knight (having killed him) and the artist (having cut off two of his legs!). However he seems to sympathise with the artist as he refers to him as ‘Poor chap’ perhaps because he also sees the artist as a victim due to his inability in painting. The dragon is actually a kind character and can not sympathise with the ostentatious people in society namely the knight, ‘Why, I asked myself, should my conqueror / Be so ostentatiously beardless,’ I think the dragon is also jealous of the knight and would rather be popular without having to fulfil history. The dragon knows his destiny, death, and knows there is no escape, however it is made clear that he would rather die after a fight and by a more dangerous looking knight. The maiden is also definitely not a victim, ‘It’s hard for a girl to be sure if / She wants to be rescued.’ She is very forward and knows her own mind and we can see that she didn’t really want to be rescued. She states how she ‘didn’t much fancy him’ (the knight) and preferred to know what equipment she was getting at a glance. Through this Fanthorpe is contrasting modern society and the traditional mythical roles. However, even though the maiden is against being rescued, Fanthorpe shows how, even though women are more dominant and opinionated than in the past, there is a certain conclusion: women still go back to the safety of a husband, ‘And a girl’s got to think of her future.’ This shows how, to some degree, women are still confined to their roles set by society. In comparison ‘Old Man, Old Man’ uses stereotyping much less. It confronts two common stereotypes in men – the powerful businessman, who does little for his family, and a forgetful old man, who is longing for the ‘good old days’ but is too stubborn to ask for the help and love he wants from his daughter who loves his helplessness. ‘I love / Your helplessness you who hate being helpless.’ Shows how the old man finds it extremely difficult to come to terms with the changes he has gone through. He wishes he were still as independent as he once was and dislikes his dependence on his daughter. However he still appears to be stubborn and proud as suggested in the final stanza by ‘Let me find your hammer. Let me / Walk with you o Drury Lane.’ It demonstrates how the daughter has to ask to be allowed to do anything to help him with ‘let’ showing the pleading in order to be allowed to do so. The stereotypical businessman contrasts with the allusion to his organisation, which is perhaps lost by age, ‘†¦as you forget / If you’ve smoked your timetabled cigarette?’ The old man was once well organised (also shown by the labelling of bottles) but has become frail and forgetful not even remembering the simple things which once ‘ruled’ his life. This transformation from businessman to old man explains the alterations in the man due to ageing. The relationship between the two characters in ‘Old Man, Old Man’, the man (old and young) and the narrator, who we can assume to be his daughter as she knows his past with disinherited children and failures with daughters unusually well, develops during the poem. Fanthorpe shows his incompetence produced by old age in the second half of the poem. ‘Let me find your hammer.’ sums up the relationship at the end of the poem between the father and daughter especially showing the old man’s helplessness – he can not even find his own hammer. At the start of the poem the old man, in his youth, is made out to have a bad relationship with his daughters, ‘not good with daughters’ and to be very caught up in his business. I have a feeling that the daughter may have been one of his disinherited children or not far off from being so. I think she was very frightened of him when he was younger and is still desperate to be accepted and/or forgiven by her father, which is why the word ‘let’ is repeated. Many of the characters in the two poems are similar. Comparisons can be made between the old man and the maiden and the knight due to situation and character (respectively). The knight and the old man in his youth relate to each other due to many similarities in character. I think it is hinted that the old man in his youth was self-centred, arrogant and powerful. The old man being described as ‘Lord’ shows us his power and control. ‘Lord once of shed, garage and garden,’ ‘Lord’ suggests that he was in control and looked up to by his employees, etc. which is similar to the knight’s character and situation. The knight is also respected by most people because of his profession and self-confidence (he does not care what other people think and in more ways than one). However with him boasting of his diplomas, etc. and wishes of becoming a hero, one could say that he is a typical lad, ‘So why be difficult? / Don’t you want to be killed and/or rescued / in the most contemporary way? He thinks that people can not do better than he can at the moment therefore he gets to make decisions for other people which of course are favoured by him. Fanthorpe also uses his character to relate to the issue of sexism. He assumes that all women should stick to the roles set by mythology and tradition, and obviously doesn’t look upon those who ‘break out of line’ kindly (Sara Cox being a modern day ladette). The old man is also similar to the maiden because of their mutual dislike of being helped. They are both intensely headstrong characters and only consented to the aid offered under serious circumstances. The old man grudgingly allows his daughter to help him because he is old and helpless. Likewise the maiden only allows the knight to rescue her once ‘The dragon got himself beaten by the boy’ and when she realised that ‘a girl’s got to think of her future.’ In the end both are forced to give in to their designated social roles and stereotypes. From closer examination we can see that the relationship of characters within the poems actually compare between the poems. In both poems we can see that one of the characters is competing against something in the poem and one comes out the victor. In ‘Not My Best Side’ the knight is competing against the dragon to see who will die, and in ‘Old Man, Old Man’ the daughter is competing with her father’s business for love and attention. In the end we see that the knight has won because he has killed the dragon and saved the maiden; in ‘Old Man, Old Man’ the daughter wins but by patience. As her father grows old, he needs his daughter’s help and can no longer run his own life, let alone a business, efficiently. The daughter has waited her whole life to be able to do something for her father and it is only in his old age she is allowed to do so. Within both poems there are many contrasts and comparisons between characters. I think Fanthorpe has managed to create the different characters extremely well through many different methods. She has incorporated poetic techniques to make characters and their feelings stand out, and language to show how personalities have developed. Humour is used to make ‘Not My Best Side’ enjoyable whilst putting across a serious point of view, and imagery to bring ‘Old Man, Old Man’ to life. As well as the different stereotypes employed, Fanthorpe has used the relationships between characters to create many strongly formed personalities within the poems. I think my favourite poem out of the two is ‘Not My Best Side’, purely because of the humour and the light-hearted way of conveying a serious point. I also feel I can identify better with it because it covers many common, modern day issues, which have affected me more than the effects of old age. I feel that Fanthorpe, in both poems, has made a lasting impression on the reader. The humour of ‘Not My Best Side, has certainly moved me, and I admire the ingenuity of taking a picture and changing the personalities of the characters. Fanthorpe adds depth to ‘Old Man, Old Man’ by subtly suggesting the old man’s confusion on a level below the everyday situations. In this way the poem conveys the difficult changes of ageing in a touching manner.

Alan Greenspan’s misunderstand of the causes of the consequences and causes

Today's policymakers must see past Alan Greenspan's misunderstand of the causes of the consequences and causes of the extraordinary grown of the U. S. ‘s account deficit. According to Greenspan, high rates of saving abroad led to increased consumption in the U. S. An alternative view to the cause of the growth in the deficit is that increased globilization made trade between richer countries and poor countries possible. Rich countries began to buy cheaper goods in poor countries, and poor countries continued to buy their own domestic goods because they were cheaper than those abroad.As a result, the U. S. deficit, which was balanced in 1991, rose to $850 billion in 2006. With the increased trade effects of globilization taking place, the central banks of countries which had a surplus prevented their currencies from appreciating by printing their own currencies and buying thousands of billions of dollars to sustain their competitive advantage. Greenspan argues that no real harm believe that no real harm has been done by these trade imbalances, and that rising debt and progress go hand-in-hand. It seems more likely that the rise of the U. S.Deficit and the paper money creation have generated an economic bubble around the world that is close to imploding. In order to stave off a complete systemic meltdown, the central banks of Europe, the U. S. , and the U. K. have injected billions into the credit markets. The Federal Reserve has been prompted to issue a round of aggressive rate cuts. U. S. lenders have expanded their balance sheets at an unprecedented pace, and the U. S. government is currently rushing through a $150 billion emergency stimulus package in an effort to prevent a world recession. Overall, it seems that Greenspan has confused cause with effect.

Reflection Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reflection - Assignment Example The supply is higher than the demand due to the release of past stockpiles by the energy companies that expected prices to go higher over the years while ignoring the price decrease. In normal circumstances, the prices fall resulting in a decline in supply and an increase in demand. However, the prices of oil declined, and demand decreased while supply increased. The predictions by the government for a further decline in prices have resulted in the maintenance of the equilibrium demand by customers expecting the prices to decrease further. Energy companies want to release as much oil and its product at the current price to avoid doing so when the prices decrease further. At the moment, the forecast for future price decreases is influencing the behavior of the supply and demand of oil prices. The steady and firm dollar has also affected the demand for oil. Oil prices get measured in dollar terms, and the currency has been stable making the decrease in prices ineffective in most countries where the dollar rates supersede the change. The increased supply has also happened due to the change in technology that allows oil companies access supplies in the trapped shale-oil

What are the characteristics of the radiation emitted by a blackbody - Speech or Presentation

What are the characteristics of the radiation emitted by a blackbody - Please show me your calculations - Speech or Presentation Example Wien’s Law in particular, states that for blackbody emissions, the higher its temperature, the higher either the frequency or the lower the wavelengths of the given predominant light emitted by the blackbody (Mahmoud 568). It can, as well be stated as the wavelength of maximum emitted radiation is often inversely proportional to absolute temperature (T). Mathematically, this law is stated as Peak Wavelength (ÃŽ ») = 0.29/T, where T is in degrees Kelvin, and Peak Wavelength is I centimeters. In this respect, one characteristic of a blackbody radiation is its temperature. Stefan-Boltzmann Law, on the other hand states that the amount of energy that is given off by the black body per second per unit area is always proportional to the forth power of the blackbody temperature. E = Sigma X Temperature to the fourth power (Mahmoud 568). From this law, the second characteristic of the back body radiation is the thermal energy possessed by the radiation. Basing on the Wien’s for mula, T = 0.29/ÃŽ ». Therefore, for the hottest where ÃŽ » = 200nm, the temperature = 0.29/200nm = 0.00145 and for the less hot object whose ÃŽ »= 650nm, T = 0.29/650nm = 0.0004461539. from these results, it is clear that the hottest body is 0.00145/0.0004461539 = 3.25 times that other

OH&S-Your organisation's OH&S system Case Study

OH&S-Your organisation's OH&S system - Case Study Example In this system the employees are expected to do as they are told. In this system the pattern of decision-making is centralized. All the employees are supposed to follow the same standards especially at the manufacturing stage. The organization uses a very formalized approach as far as safety of its employees are concerned. The management does not tolerate any deviation from the set norms. For e.g. no matter how old or new an employee is, he is given no special consideration if he does not follow the safety rules set by the company. Even the oldest staffs are not allowed to use their own techniques based on the on-the-job experience they have gained in so many years. Due to the low risk factor of the 'machine bureaucracy system', the organization completely believes in it. Until and unless health and safety initiatives are implemented as a part of the whole management program, the desired results cannot be achieved. Therefore OH&S management system has been successfully integrated with other business system like financial management system, environmental management system, quality management system and human resource management system for maximum benefits. In addition to all these my organization has employee wellness program in order to enhance the employees' health status and prevent stress and burnout. Thus periodical medical examinations, cardiopulmonary resuscitation training, hypertension detection and control, improved dietary practices, stop-smoking programs, exercise and fitness, weight control, stress management, immunizations, and accident-risk reduction training programs have been organized. All this was not possible without integrating the OH&S system with the financial system of the organization. All this has been done for the employees - the most important asset of the organization. Hence the above measures taken by the organization have fulfilled the safety needs of the employees, which have resulted in a fruitful integration of the human resource system with the core management systems of the organization. Safety and Quality are synonymous. Since there is excellent OH&S system prevalent in the organization, the quality system is bound to be satisfactory. By taking proper care of the OH&S system the management of my organization, successfully integrated the quality systems too. The environment in which one is working, immensely affects an employee's welfare. Just as OH&S is considered an integral part of the core management system, of late, environmental management systems are being considered an integral part of the OH&S system. This trend is prevalent in most of the modern and progressive organizations. My organization also believes in what the majority thinks. Hence OH&S has been integrated with the environment of the workplace to such an extent that these two systems, instead of separated identity, have started being addressed as - OHS&E. Since Environment

Organizational behavior during an economic crisis Essay

Organizational behavior during an economic crisis - Essay Example Moreover, sudden changes in circumstances and events bring their own set of complications. The financial crisis that is affecting individuals, companies, industries, countries and whole regions demands more than the simple and traditional ideas of motivation. This study surveys the European car industry by taking a closer look at the industry in two specific countries viz. Germany and the Czech republic. The problems being faced by carmakers in these countries are highlighted to serve as examples of what the industry is experiencing. This provides the background for the typical motivational issues arising during the ongoing financial crisis. Methods are then suggested that could be effective during this crisis, and an explanation is offered at the outset as to why the motivation method used during crises would be different from the period before the crises. â€Å"Motivation in an organizational setting is a social process in which some members try to influence others, to work harder, work smarter, work more effectively.† (Buchanan, 1997: 83) Whether there is a crisis or not, this remains the same under all conditions unless the organization does not seek to be progressive any longer. The organizational goals are the same, and the same tools used to keep employers engaged and motivated are employed except that priorities change in line with the change in contextual circumstances. Taylor’s scientific approach to organizational management may seem to be appropriate for a mechanical production industry as the car industry is, but people are not mere mechanical beings like cars. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs provides a better identification of the needs of workers and therefore is a model for employee motivation, at least under normal conditions. Effective task fragmentation however could provide a basis for improving efficiency. Maslow’s lower categories identify physiological, safety, social and esteem needs. The first covers basic needs of food and

Impact of traditional and ABC cost allocation on decision making Research Paper

Impact of traditional and ABC cost allocation on decision making - Research Paper Example The cost of direct materials and direct labors are easy to trace to products. However, allocating indirect overhead costs are very complicated and not easily traced to products. Such indirect costs require predetermined overhead rates to be allocated. In this study, I will focus on the impact of traditional and activity-based cost allocations on decision makers. Decision-making is a function preceded by a series of information gathering and analysis. The business environment is becoming more dynamic and volatile not to mention the ever increasing competition. Companies operate under the famous accounting concept (the going concern), which implies that the business’ operations should continue indefinitely. However, the life span of a business and more importantly, the performance are heavily influenced by the decisions made. Therefore, decision-making is a critical function in the organization. The managerial accounting is the organization’s department charged with the responsibility of providing the necessary information for decision-making. Consequently, the management accountant’s role is significant in the organization (Kaye, 1988; pp. 1-5). Managerial accounting includes the following activities: data distinguishing proof, measuring, information examination, and correspondence. The transmission of the data is important to upgrade educated choice making to encourage the accomplishment of the associations targets (Sawsan and Mostafa, 2012; pp. 1-5). It is the commitment of the administration bookkeeper to guarantee the usage of the procedure specified previously. The role of the administration bookkeeping and the administration bookkeeper are to plan, organize, control, direct, communicate and motivate. To start with, Planning is the essential capacity of the administration by a method for which the supervisors choose the objectives to be fulfilled and the course of activities to convey the objectives (Sawsan and Mostafa, 2012;

Health Care Administration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Health Care Administration - Essay Example The current reform efforts in health professions education also focus on instructing members of the health care profession to work in interdisciplinary teams. This entails collaboration and integration of services and expertise in order â€Å"to ensure that care is continuous and reliable† (Peterson, 2003). Employing evidence-based practice, according to IOM, involves integration of best evidence and researches with clinical practice in order achieve optimum care for the patient. This encourages various health care students and professionals â€Å"to participate in learning and research activities to the extent feasible† (Peterson, 2003). The IOM also discussed that health professions education integrate quality improvement practices into health care practice. This involves having to identify the different errors and dangers in care, understanding safety design principles, â€Å"continually understand[ing] and measure[ing] quality of care in terms of structure, process , and outcomes in relation to patient and community needs†(Peterson, 2003). Finally, according to the IOM, members of the health care profession should be instructed on the use of informatics. This will help ease communication, easily manage data and information, and mitigate errors in the practice. The past 50 years in American history have yielded various changes in the health care practice. The cost of healthcare and the increase in health care allocation by the government and various investors have given birth to various improvements and innovations in the rehabilitation and care of patients. These new technology and new medical practices however have yielded various issues on quality and effectiveness of health care. The 1990s have produced various studies and reports revealing that advances in medical practice have not improved the quality of health care services for Americans. Medical errors

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Retirement Issues - Essay Example The essay "Retirement Issues" intends to overview the causes behind retirement plan and offer the suggestions to the younger generation on the successful accomplishment of a resilient retirement plan that is expected to get rid of the lacunas of the earlier generations in framing the same. , the term unforeseen itself is stochastic or probabilistic in nature. There is no definite way to measure all unanticipated events that might require added financial assistance and thereby extra precautionary savings. Hence, at the end of the day, it is all about series of assumptions and to some extent careful gambling with a hope that the dice would fall in the expected number. If the dice falls otherwise; then all the associated dreams with the retirement life fall into pieces like a glass house stuck with a stone. Hope does not die though, people keep on thinking that their planning considering the retirement life is on the right track and then out of the blue an emergency pops up forcing the individual and his family into the ocean of despair. By the time the individual realizes something is not right in his planning, it is too late. The most ironic thing is that this can happen owing to human error or purely out of the accident. This point to the fact that even if one is perfect regarding his retirement planning; he might face the brunt of the unforeseen events similar to anyone else. It is easily understandable now that why retirement plan is important and difficult to optimize.

What factors led to the end of the Cold War Assignment

What factors led to the end of the Cold War - Assignment Example There are two major factors that were known to have led to the end of it all. One of the major factors was the leadership of the United States under President Ronald Reagan. It was, as many people say, President Ronald Reagans willpower and drive to rise up against the Soviet Union and make an effort in strengthening and improving the aptitude and skill of the US military. The Iron Curtain ultimately was left defeated, because they could no longer compete. Reagan added political, military, and financial weight on the Soviet Union, which was by that time were ill with serious commercial unproductivity. The USSR collapsed and fell in 1991. This left the United States as the leading military supremacy. Another major factor was the reforms attempted by Gorbachev. In 1987, he declared an program of economic reformation called perestroika, or restructuring. In addition, he instantaneously presented glasnost, or openness, which added liberty of the media and the transparency of national organizations. These efforts did not do much to resume the nation’s already lethargic economy. The changes devolved things to a certain degree. The Russian ruble was inconvertible. Perestroika led to the creation of new holdups in the Soviet financial system. By 1990, the administration had essentially lost its control over the dying economic

Nutrition - Hamburger Essay Example for Free

Nutrition Hamburger Essay â€Å"Approximately 30. 3 percent of children (ages 6 to 11) are overweight and 15. 3 percent are obese. For adolescents (ages 12 to 19), 30. 4 percent are overweight and 15. 5 percent are obese†. Every year the percentage of Americans increases the obesity and death rate in the United States of America. This all is happening because of unhealthy junk food we eat every day. People eat fast food almost every day because they are too lazy to cook healthy food in their home so they always look for quick and fast food like McDonalds, Burger King, KFC, Jack in the box etc. For some teenagers like college students it is becoming a regular meal because they don’t get time to cook healthy food and they always want an easy and quick meal. It is cheap and convenient. People have started eating more at fast food restaurants than eating at home but what they don’t know is that in future it can cause so many diseases like heart attacks, cholesterol, and stomach pains. Even though, fast food is quick and unhealthy food people still eat it because it tastes good. In 2008, 40,000 people die in America just because of eating fast food every day. It shows logos and pathos because it’s telling how people are crazy about fast food but they don’t know what type of consequence they will have to face after they get heart problems, cancer, and diabetes so on. My solution is Fast food should serve little more healthy food with fried sandwich and healthy juices so people will not get diseases like heart attacks, and stokes and it should just opened on weekends. If they started opening fast food restaurants on weekend only then people will cook in their home, eat healthy food, and will stay healthy too. They should issue id to everyone so people cannot eat twice and the people who ate on Saturdays they will not able to eat on Sundays. Fast food restaurant should also not be close to high schools because most of the teenagers love to eat junk food and they will not to eat healthy food. If we serve more healthy food than junk food than it will be effective for people and can saves their lives from diseases. People will object this solution because first they don’t like healthy food at all and even though junk food causes them so many problems they will not stop eating because we all are addicted to junk food. It can be solve if the fast food restaurants stop using cheap oil and fresh meat and serve healthy food with regular meal. There are couple steps we can follow if we all have to live healthy. Fast food restaurants should not be opened on other location because there are so many types of restaurant where ever you see sign of McDonalds, Burger King so on. But I think teenagers will not accept it because they are too lazy to cook their own food. Second Fast food restaurants should serve healthy food with regular meal. If they started doing this no one will come to fast food restaurants and business owners will not be able to make that much money that they use to from people before. Last, they should not be close to the school because most teenagers eat junk food and they will not be eating healthy food at all. My solution is best because first it will keeps people healthy and won’t get diseases like cancer, strokes and death rating will be reduce. Even though, people will not get to eat that much like fried chicken sandwich French fries they will stay healthier most of the time and get chance to live more. People will not be lazy to cook food in their home and they will more likely spend their times with their families. Then, most of the time people will eat with their families instead of eating alone. I know people will not accept this solution but if they want to survive and want to live healthy then they will accept this solution. I’m sure the Fast Food Company will not like this assessment because they wouldn’t able to make that much money that they use to. But people lives are more important than money. If people eat healthy food every day, they will not be lazy and more likely go to their work. They will be happy, cheerful and aggressive all the time. If people will be happy and aggressive, they will contribute more work while working Fast food is just making us large and giving us new type of disease. So I suggest people especially teenagers who are addicted to fast food should also eat healthy food. In real world, no one will follow these steps because it is a hard process and teenagers will not follow it because we cannot live without eating fast food and we are so lazy to cook healthy food and we always look for easy and quick meal even though we know its fried and can gave us terrible diseases. I suggest American government to pass this law to close fast food restaurants during the week fast food is eating us.

The Process Of Time Table Construction Computer Science Essay

The Process Of Time Table Construction Computer Science Essay The process of time-table construction can prove to be a hectic task considering the number of cohorts [courses] and the modules [subjects] offered by a specific university. This is mainly because, there could be a deadlock in allotment of the schedule considering all the constraints to be satisfied .This requires logical thinking which definitely consumes a large amount of time. Moreover, identification of the inconsistencies and their respective solutions can prove to be disastrous. Initially , the task of time table scheduling was done manually .This proved to be troublesome ,error-prone and time consuming .To overcome these problems , automated exam time-table generation has come to light. With a wider range of choices available to the students in the selection of modules [ subjects ] and cohorts [ courses] of their choice , the flexibility of the University improves but at the same time , the task of time-table creation becomes merely complicated .However , a software which can consider all the constraints and cross faculty modules [latter includes the modules taken by students from various faculties]as well , is of immense help. Thus ,the scientific society has given considerable attention to automated time-table generation from the last four decades .One of the most primitive ones used the concepts of one or more of the following operational methodologies network flow techniques reduction to graph coloring integer programming direct heuristics and more The latest technology uses advanced techniques like expert systems which work on the concept of artificial intelligence, logic programming which uses languages like Prolog, constraint logic programming and generic evolutionary algorithms .However , there is no universally accepted language for time-table creation. Several attempts have been made to formulate one but these are left incomplete. In this software , the constraint satisfaction is 99% .Moreover , the interface developed is use friendly where in the user doesnt have to enter the names of the cohorts and modules which he wishes to opt for as he can just select the same from the drop down lists . WHAT IS CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION? Constraint satisfaction was first introduced in artificial intelligence .This is a logical problem solving language merged with a programming language which is used to solve a given problem with a specific set of constraints. This deals with the assignment of certain values to the variables while meeting certain conditions. It is represented as a set of variables Xi and a set of constraints Ci where each constraint specifies a subset of variables and an allowable combination of these. In this project some of the main constraints which are to be considered are as below: Students belonging to different cohorts but studying a common module must have the exam on the same day. No two modules of the same cohorts can have their respective exams on the same day One of the soft constraints is that no two exams of the same cohort must be on the same day Thus, these are satisfied before the software is deployed .The techniques used in constraint satisfaction are purely dependent on the constraints. Constraints specific to a finite domain are solved using search strategies in the form of backtracking or local search. Constraint propagation is yet another technique which is used but however is sometimes incomplete. That is it either solves the problem or proves and declares it unsatisfiable .These methods are combined with the search strategies to simplify the process. There are many constraint programming libraries which can be included in this project. Since Java is the platform we develop the project on, Choco is an appropriate library which can be easily used with Java programming .it is an event based propagating system with backtrack structures. More on Choco is discussed in the later sections on the report. BRUTE FORCE TECHNIQUE: Brute force technique is a process of finding the result by taking all the possible inputs i.e., a trial and error process. If a taken Input yields the correct result then it is treated as the correct input. If not then it goes for the next input until we get the correct result. We can consider knapsack problem as an example of a brute force technique. Knapsack problem generally means a bag which should be filled with weights that should yield maximum profit. The most implicit constraint of knapsack problem is to maximize profit with minimum weight. Let us say there a four types of materials as follows gold , silver , platinum and bronze with profit values of 1000,10,2000 and 5 and weights of 2,3,4,5 .Thief want more profit with his minimum capacity bag let us say it can fit 5.So he applies the brute force technique to get maximum profit.First he fills the bag with gold which weights 2 and then goes for silver which weights 3 here the bag is full and yielding the profit of 1000+10=1010. Now he tries of another combination i.e., he selects platinum which weights 4 and now the rest of the bag is only one so he can select the  ½ part of gold which weights 1 thus the bag is filled with yielding 2000+500=2500 .In this manner different combinations are tried until the max profit is yielded. CHAPTER 2 Aims and Objectives The manual process of generating exam timetable by taking all constraints into consideration is very much time taking and difficult process. So the main aim of this project is to build a software tool to create exam timetables for a university or a school and the application should be user friendly and should satisfy all the constraints. The brief explanation of this is as follows: First analyze the manual process in developing exam time table that is following in schools and universities. This analysis helps us in developing the software tool. After analyzing the manual process we should make a list of all possible constraints which should be satisfied by the developed system. We should identify all the constraints that should be satisfied by our developed system and we should analyze them which is helpful in developing the software product. To gain an understanding of constraint satisfaction tool like choco which we are using in the development process. The developed product should be user friendly, so that user can use the system easily. In AUTOMATED EXAM TIME TABLE product the user should input the cohort name and module name. Instead of typing the entire cohort and module name we should put a dropdown list where user selects from it. By this we can eliminate the incorrect typing. The developed product should satisfy constraints like two exams of the same year of both semesters should not be on the same day. Every student should get their exams on alternate days only. All such type of major constraints should be satisfied by our product. MOTIVATION: Most of the people are interested in playing chess. By playing chess we can improve our concentration power. We have an idea of creating code for playing chess. As chess is played by two players one player is automated and another player plays manually. Here constraint satisfaction is used because there are certain conditions like elephant should have only straight moves, soldier should have one step straight move etc., we have to design our code by satisfying these conditions. Our program is used by the player in the absence of his partner. This player makes use of graphical user interface to opt his plots against other player which makes use of our code. So here artificial intelligence is used. This idea motivated us for designing automated examination time tabling software. FEATURES: Exams are scheduled such that no two exams are overlapped for the same student. Students are informed in case of any changes in the examination schedule like postponement, or preponement etc. User can save data so that he can view the application if he reopens it again. Students are allotted examination halls in a proper way so that a single student is not allotted in two different rooms. Proper allotment of staff in examination halls. Student can post his problems regarding exams. User can add modules to this software if they are relevant to this software. KEY TECHNIQUES JAVA PROGRAMMING JAVA is the language which has many features like multithreading, platform dependent, simple, robust, object oriented etc. Java is portable and performance levels of it are too high. Java concepts are very simple and understandable. Exceptions are also perfectly managed by Java. Database connectivity, GUI, IO packages is the main concepts due to which we go for java programming. CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION PROGRAMMING USING CHOCO CHOCO is a java library which is mainly used for constraint satisfaction. CHOCO is based on events which have the capability of backtracking. It can be used for many purposes like teaching, researching etc. So by using this constraint satisfaction programming we can develop the exam time table perfectly. ORACLE DATABASE FOR DATA STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL Database is a collection of entities. Data is a collection of similar raw information. Data is represented with the help of views or tables. View is not a physical entity. It is the representation for shadow of tables. Oracle database is mainly used for data storage and retrieval. That is data is stored in a place and in future if we want that data we can easily retrieve it. For developing the exam timetable in a university the above three key techniques are very very important and by using these techniques only the development processing of timetable can be done perfectly. SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS There are two types of system requirements software and hardware. SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS Based on the operating system many things may depend. So selection of operating system plays very important role. WINDOWS XP operating system is the most appropriate operating system for software requirements of developing exam timetable. Oracle 10g relational database management system is also one of the software requirements. For developing the JAVA code My Eclipse Tool is the most suitable software requirement. For constraint satisfaction programming the preferred version is CHOCO 2.1.0. These are the minimum and most important software requirements for developing exam time table. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS The processor required is Pentium 111 processor with 800MHz. Oracle database 10g and Java code developing tool must be on run mode at the same time so 1GB RAM is required. 20GB HDD also required as hardware requirement. These are the minimum and most important hardware requirements for developing exam time table. CHAPTER 3 SYSTEM ANALYSIS Existing System: The timetable management of a university was initially done normally by using some primitive methods and algorithms. The planning is made by a group of people and the timetable is fixed after certain negotiations. The university needs to set the timetable for each and every student separately and then finalize the whole timetable. The Timetable that is prepared by the Examination department of that institution needs to be sent in atleast 45 days advance to all the departments of the university and concerned affiliated colleges also. There are some issues regarding the timetable preparation. They are The students belonging to different departments will have the subjects related to their course. The subjects may be in common for certain branches. So the timetable designer needs to have a proper idea regarding the date and time of the examinations making sure that the same subject to different departments is conducted on the same day and at the same time. This reduces the extra effort for preparing different sets of question papers and ensuring the same complexity of the paper. A subject may be completed in advance by certain departments and there might be certain students who had failed that certain subject. The students who have failed in the regular examinations are given a chance for writing the supplementary examinations in the next semester. There is a chance of anomaly that the regular examination of the current semester and the supplementary examination for the previous semester may fall on the same day and same time. So the timetable adjustment must be flexible in such a way that no student misses any of the examinations. The regular student needs to have at least a day gap in between the examinations so that he can get ample amount of time for preparation for the next examination. The availability of the invigilators also needs to be checked before scheduling a particular examination. The staff members who are not assigned any class work at that time are to be taken and the schedule for a particular staff is to be prepared. The subject that is opted by maximum number of students is to be held as the first examination itself. The reason behind this is that, if the subject that is opted by maximum number of students is conducted at the last then there would be a problem in validating the answer scripts. So overcoming all the above mentioned issues is a hectic task. The timetable designer needs to have an idea regarding all those issues. The time taken by an individual to overcome all the above issues may take a few months of time. Proposed System: The proposed system of timetable management is rather a key solution for all the above mentioned issues. It gains its importance in eliminating the potential risks that are involved in the process. We can give certain number of constraints as the input and the schedule is prepared considering the constraints. The software is flexible enough for the users to enter the starting and the ending date of the examinations, the names of the students and their respective departments are present in the database and the details are retrieved accordingly. The result of the examination is automatically stored in the database for the preparation of the next semesters timetable. The proposed system is considerably quicker and more efficient. CHAPTER 4 SOFTWARE TOOLS DISCUSSION 1.CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION: We have a lot of constraints which need to be imposed and satisfied in our project. Basically CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION can be defined as the process of finding a solution to a set of constraints that impose conditions for which the variables must satisfy. In general terms, a solution is the set of variables that satisfies all the constraints.This can also be defined as the outcome of constraint satisfaction 2. CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION PROBLEM(CSP): A CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION PROBLEM(CSP) is defined by a set of variables each having a specific domain and also a set of constraints each involving a set of variables. These constraints restrict the values that the variables can take. A CSP performs these two tasks simultaneously. Now coming to the solution to CSP, it is just an assignment that maps every defined variable to a value. There may be cases where you may want to find just one solution, all possible solutions or an optimal solution based on the given objective function in terms of variables. A general constraint problem consists of the following: A set of variables A={a1,a2,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.an} For each variable ai, a finite domain set Di of its possible values. D={D(a1),D(a2),à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.D(an)}. A set of constraints to restrict the values that the variables can take. C={C1,C2,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Cj}. 3. CONSTRAINTS SOLVER: Now we need a constraint satisfaction tool to solve the considered constraints. This tool can be combined with any other programming languages like C,C++,JAVA etc. This tool is nothing but the constraint satisfaction libraries . As we move on with the java programming in our project, different constraint satisfaction java libraries available are given below: Choco JaCop Qstudio Avaya Aptana JCL Koalog From above mentioned java libraries, we use choco in this project. Choco is based on an event based propagation mechanism with an additional feature of backtracking structures which adds to its supremacy. This gives clear difference between modeling and solving a problem. 4. CHOCO: Choco is an open source software implemented in java program that is widely used for constraint programming and constraint satisfaction. General Features: Choco provides problem modeler that handles a variety of variable types that are integer variables real variables that holds an interval of floats. expressions using variables with the many operators like +, -, /, * and etc. Chocos modeler supports 70 constraints some of them are listed below Arithmetical constraints (integers or real): equal, not equal, greater or equal, less or equal. Refined constraints i .e Boolean operations between constrains. It will verify the relation for a set of variables by defining the sets of tuples in the table constraints. Constraint Programming Solver: Constraint programming solver provides The different types of various domains implementations will be done (enumerated, bounded, integer variables). For constraint propagation several algorithms were implemented (parameterized cumulative, full and bound all different, state-of-the-art AC algorithms for table constraints) Chocos Design: Chocos design provides clear separation between modeling and solving. In the modeling the problem will be expressed and variables and relations are defined. The verification for variable constraints for their potential implementation is done. The API is provided that facilitates how to state a problem as user friendly. In the solving phase, the problem solving is done by Constraint Programming and related information is provided. It handles specific memory management for variables and tree-based search. 5. JAVA: We use choco constraint java library to build the tool. By embedding choco java library with the java programming we create the required exam timetabling tool. Java provides us many features which augments security and has many advantages: Java is designed in such a way that you can easily write the code and debug the code. Java uses the concepts of automatic memory allocation and garbage collection. As java is an object-oriented programming language, it allows objects to work together. The code written in java is reusable. Java is platform independent. This is developed by keeping security in mind. Java augments todays web with security and reliability. Because of these features we use java programming in our project. But we need an INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT(IDE) to develop a java application. Lots of IDEs are available. In this project EXAM TIMETABLING with CONSTRAINT SATISFACTIO we use MyEclipse IDE. 6. MyEclipse IDE: MyEclipse is a commercially available JAVA EE and AJAX IDE. This is created and maintained by the company GENUITEC. This is built on the eclipse platform. This integrates proprietary and open solutions into the development environment. MyEclipse incorporates open standard technologies to provide a development environment for J2EE, XML, UML and databases. This is an open source IDE to which you can add external jars. MyEclipse allows you to save the valuable time on debugging environment. By using MyEclipse, it is easy to edit and debug the environment. MyEclipse comes with two versions: a professional and a standard edition. The standard edition adds various tools and a number of other features to the basic Eclipse Java Developer version. CHAPTER 5 SYSTEM DESIGN The development process of the Automated Exam Timetabling tool for a University, we use Choco 2.1.0 version which is implemented using Java Programming. The different tasks which are going to be implemented in the process of developing this application are Designing Graphical User Interface(GUI). Data Calculations. Timetable. Choco tool for Constraint Satisfaction. Step1: Designing Graphical User Interface (GUI) This process includes only Graphical User Interface part, that consists buttons, Tables, Dropdown lists and etc. These controls are arranged in the proper order to display them. Look and feel will be implemented in this process. Step 2: Data Calculations Data Calculations part consists of code which results the final output for the Schedule of Exam Timetable. Here we implement the code with logic that works like selection of exams to be held in alternative days. Here we consider all exams of particular course and prepares a logic for Exam Timetable that includes Supplementary and Regular Exams. Step 3: Timetable Timetable process involves in the creation of a schedule that sets the examinations are allocated into venues with limited capacities within an examination period. This includes the following methods. We cannot schedule a session where one student cannot taken two examinations in the same session. The venues capacity should not exceed from the total number of candidates writing the exam in a schedule. Step 4: ChocoSolver ChocoSolver is a java library for constraint programming and constraint satisfaction. Choco will define all the variables of time tabling problem that includes the Constraint Definitions Candidate Information Venue Information Examination information Exam Session particulars. User has to enter constraints and changes to the exams related to the particular exam or venue. Defining the Constraints This program will allow the users to define all necessary constraints according to the exams. The different duration should be separated for all examinations . The examination time and venue of a particular batch should be held in particular date. Venue Partitioning This process considers the number of faculties and venues. Invigilators are allocated to particular venue for the examinations. User interface is provided for the assignment and manipulation of venue partitions to the faculties. In venue partitioning the following points are considered in the Choco Solver The number of students in a venue should not exceed more than the capacity. The sufficient invigilators should be allocated for the each examination hall. The attendance sheet should be provided to the invigilators to confirm the candidate is attended or not. PROBLEMS IDENTIFIED AND THEIR PROPOSED SOLUTIONS: Scheduling an exam time table is very difficult and time taking task because there are many constraints that should be satisfied for ex: at least one day gap should be there in between two exams so that student gets time to revise, there should not be any other exam on the same day which collides with the present exam, room allocation, staff allocation, invigilator allocation à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Etc. All this problems are solved in this project, this project saves a lot of time, this helps to schedule exam time table in more user friendly manner. Proposed System: In this project user can add any module to any cohort by using dropdown menus. Mostly we are not sure about the starting date of exams, but in this application user have chance to select the starting date of examinations. Sometimes same module may be shared by some cohorts. In this case we are going to create new time table for the module shared by different cohorts on the same day. So that time can be saved and number of invigilators can be reduced. Some student may have supplementary exams. This supplementary exam and regular exam should not be on the same day or on the consecutive days. Separate schedule is created for these supplementary exams or those should be held with next intake students. This application allows user to add modules to a cohort by using drop down menus. The user can also make changes to the selected modules list. As per the date, schedule and cohort selected by user examination time table is created. As the user is allowed to choose options from drop down list provided, problems that occur due to typing mistakes can be decreased. Application development and deployment: The steps involved in the development and deployment of application involve Formulating the data interpretation scheme that is sufficient to handle all the requirements of the problem converting all data available to data interpretation scheme Next step is developing the scheduling algorithm that is used to schedule the exams. The application should support the numerous last minute changes during its development and deployment easily. Application Uses: The following are the benefits of Automated Exam Timetabling The initial implementation of program requires a lot of time for data entry and constraint specification. We can reuse the database of previous exams for next exams. Assuming that the constraints are specified correctly, the application should produce the schedule that is conflict free. We can schedule the exam timetable in a short span of time. We can make last minute changes in a short span of time. Shortening the exam period can make the expenses spend on conducting the exams (such as buildings, staff, etc.,) come down. The application benefits from its three tier architecture design. Conclusion: Automated Exam Timetabling software is used to schedule the university exam time table. This is reduces time and complexity involved in scheduling the exam time table manually. This document explains about the space and time complexity involved in scheduling the exam. The application developed is user friendly and it is used to give a graphical look and feel to the user for accessing and entering the information. Automated Exam Timetabling provides all the features that are required for scheduling the exam time table. Implementation of this software at different universities reduces the cost in terms of money and time. Future Uses: Automated Exam timetabling can be extended to schedule the university class time table and school time table School Timetabling: This application is used for scheduling the timetables for weekly classes at higher schools. University Timetabling: This application is used for scheduling the lectures of students of different modules in a university such that they prevent students and lecturers from double booking.

Blood pressure laboratory report

Blood pressure laboratory report Abstract The aims of the experiment were to measure blood pressure in a female volunteer using auscultation, cardiac microphone and an automated blood pressure meter. Moreover, monitoring changes in blood flow and blood pressure in the leg whilst sitting and standing. In some exercises this was carried out by using a pressure cuff and listening for Korotkoff sounds with a stethoscope or microphone. An automated blood pressure meter was also used as well as recording when the pulse reappeared in the finger/leg after the blood pressure cuff had been inflated, via the use of a pulse transducer. The main conclusions of the experiment were that the blood pressure measurement differed more for the cardiac microphone technique (mean of 96.31/77.01 mmHg) than auscultation (93/71.33 mmHg) and automated blood pressure meter (94.33/71.33 mmHg); however there was little variation between trials in all methods. In exercise 4 there was a delay from hearing the Korotkoff sounds, to observing a pulse after t he cuff was deflated. Lastly, there was a difference in blood pressure between the arm and leg whilst sitting (96.33 and 89.98 mmHg respectively) and between the leg whilst sitting and standing (89.98 and 114.44 mmHg respectively). Introduction The cardiac cycle involves increasing aortic blood pressure above the veins, causing blood flow through the systemic circulation. Blood flow (pulse) through the pulmonary circulation is caused by higher pressure in the pulmonary arteries than pulmonary veins [1]. Systolic blood pressure, the maximum blood pressure, arises when the heart contracts, pumping blood into the aorta (systole). Diastolic blood pressure, minimum blood pressure level, in which the ventricles relax causes arterial pressure to decrease resulting in the heart refilling with blood (diastole) [2]. The mean arterial pressure (MAP) can be calculated by taking into account the diastolic and systolic blood pressures. However, this value is not just the average of the two determinants [4]. Both these pressures can be determined by implanting a pressure catheter into an artery, and measuring pressure changes as the heart beats [5]. This process though accurate, can be both uncomfortable and invasive, and is rarely used. Hence, blood pressure is more commonly measured by way of auscultation, an indirect, non-invasive technique, whose setup can be seen in figure 1. Auscultation depends on silent streamlined flow but the production of Korotkoff sounds during turbulent flow, by listening through a stethoscope placed on the brachial artery, and recorded by a sphygmomanometer. This method involves placing an inflatable cuff around the patients upper arm, which is slowly inflated until the pulse cannot be felt (cuff pressure higher than systolic pressure). The pressure inside the cuff is steadily lowered until a tapping sound is heard (systolic blood pressure) where the artery pressure is now adequate to rise above that in the cuff. As cuff pressure is further reduced, the heart sounds become louder and then abruptly become weakened as diastolic pressure is approaching and flow is more streamlined. The point at which the heart sounds stop altogether is the diastolic blood pressure, in which normal flow has been resumed [1]. Normal blood pressure should be around 120/80 mmHg [6]. The main aims of the experiment are to compare the auscultation, cardiac microphone and automated blood pressure meter techniques for measuring blood pressure. In addition, compare blood pressure at different body locations i.e. arm and leg whilst sitting and standing. Results The mean blood pressure was 93/71.33 mmHg, showing diastolic and especially systolic values are below reference range. Over the three trails the MAP was 78.55 mmHg, which is within the normal range (~ 70-100 mmHg). The standard deviation for each parameter was very similar (2, 1.53 and 1.68), implying that the normal distribution is very narrow, with the majority of data concentrated around the mean. A mean blood pressure of 96.31/77.01 mmHg indicates that diastolic and systolic values are below normal reference range. Over the three trials, the MAP was 83.44 mmHg, which is within the normal range. The standard deviations for each parameter were similar (2.39, 1.15 and 1.53), implying the data had low dispersion. The reappearance of Korotkoff sounds while the pressure cuff was being deflated corresponds to the systolic blood pressure (96.21 mmHg). The diastolic blood pressure is marked when the sounds fade away (77.52 mmHg). The mean blood pressure was 94.33/71.33 mmHg, indicating that diastolic and systolic values are below normal range, whereas the MAP (79 mmHg) over all three trials, were in normal range. The standard deviations for each parameter were extremely similar (1.15, 1.15 and 0.67), implying little variation. The Korotkoff sounds and pulse signal fade away when the pressure cuff is inflated and then reappear while the cuff is being deflated. The pressure at which the Korotkoff sounds reappear is recorded as the systolic blood pressure (96.33 mmHg) which appears just before that of the pulse. The leg systolic pressure (114.44 mmHg) whilst standing, taken from when the pulse reappeared when the pressure cuff was being deflated, was higher than that whilst sitting (89.98 mmHg). Moreover, the pressure in the arm (96.33 mmHg) was higher than that of the leg whilst sitting but lower than that of the leg whilst standing. Discussion Using the stethoscope can lead to errors such as the pressure cuff being too big, leading to lower results than expected e.g. mean blood pressure of 93/71.33 mmHg in the auscultation technique. Moreover, incorrect positioning of the stethoscope or slow inflation of the pressure cuff can cause venous congestion resulting in faint Korotkoff sounds. Likewise, if the cuff is inflated immediately after the previous trial, it can cause venous distension, distorting the Korotkoff sounds. Excess pressure on the stethoscope bell can disturb arterial flow, muffling the sounds, especially in a noisy environment. In addition, one individuals perception of systolic, tapping sounds may be different to that of another [3]. Lastly, the volunteer may be suffering from white coat hypertension or feel uneasy as a result of the laboratory setting; however these tend to result increase blood pressure [6]. The experiment could have been improved by having different sized pressure cuffs, having separate ro oms when listening for Korotkoff sounds to reduce misinterpretation, and taking longer breaks in between the different trials to ensure normal blood flow has been resumed. The Korotkoff sounds reappear just before that of the pulse in exercise 4, because the sound of the blood spurting into the artery happens before the pulse manages to flow to the finger. An ausculatory gap can arise in between the systolic and diastolic pressures, in which the Korotkoff sounds fade away and then reappear at a lower pressure [1]. This can bring about some confusion to what is the true blood pressure; however this could not be seen in any of the exercises. The reappearance of blood flow to measure systolic pressure can be more accurate if the pressure cuff is released at a lower rate (e.g. 1 mmHg each time), as the true pressure may be missed if the pressure is released too quickly, and hence would lead to a lower result. In exercise 4, the diastolic pressure corresponds to the reappearance of the pulse. Hence, this method will be able to replace the auscultation and cardiac microphone techniques as it can measure both systolic (reappearance of Korotkoff sounds) and the diastolic pressure (reappearance of the pulse). There was a noticeable difference between pressure in the arm (96.33 mmHg) than in the leg (89.98 mmHg) whilst standing (6.35 mmHg). This difference will probably be due to experimental errors such as cuff size or misinterpretation of sounds. Less obvious explanations may be narrowing of the arteries or reduced blood flow in the leg. When the volunteer stood up, the blood pressure in the leg increased by 24.46 mmHg, because the pressure in the veins below the heart are increased, but are reduced in veins above the heart due to gravity. Hence, there is a reduced venous return, causing the leg pressure to increase. Furthermore, when comparing the three different techniques, the cardiac microphone had less similar results to the other two. For example, this method had a MAP of 83.44 mmHg compared to 78.55 and 79 mmHg for auscultation and automated blood pressure meter respectively. It seems that the cardiac microphone had greater values, especially diastolic pressures, having a mean of 77.01 mmHg. This could indicate incorrect positioning of the microphone, too much finger pressure on the microphone, difficultly listening for the sounds or inaccurate interpretation of the graph/sounds. There was little variation between the trials in all the methods, indicating that the results were accurate and reliable. As mentioned previously, the MAP is not simply the average of diastolic and systolic pressure because the arterial blood spends more time near to the diastolic pressure than the systolic pressure, and hence the equation takes this into account. The diastolic pressure has been shown to be less variable across the methods (low standard deviation) as it occurs in between heart beats, whereas systolic pressure can rapidly change in response to various triggers such as exercise.

Nathan The Wise :: essays research papers

Continually present in Gotthold Lessing’s play, Nathan the Wise, is the pursuit for truth. In particular, a truth that goes beyond religion, one that reaches to the depths of humanity: human nature’s freedom. In his play, Lessing reveals the freedom of human nature among mankind through the bonds of friendship. Furthermore, Lessing conveys an optimistic view of human nature in such a way that left to its own devices, human nature will seek the goodness of mankind and fraternity. Friendship in its purest form is not bound to the confines of religious differences, social status, or selfishness. Without religion or society imposing its ideals, human nature is free to pursue truth and seek the goodness in mankind while bonding in friendship. A selfless act is good but good is not an act done for recognition. To Nathan, part of friendship is giving of oneself without receiving. The Templar shows his selflessness when Nathan offers the Templar riches for rescuing his daughter from a fire, but the Templar declines any praise with anti-Semitic insults, â€Å"Permit what, Jew?† (211). The Templar’s refusal, although harsh, seemed to affirm the goodness Nathan saw in the young man, â€Å"A modest greatness would hide behind the monstrous, merely to escape admiration† (212). The lengths the Templar went to in order to save a life is a testament in itself of his goodness, far more powerful than his insults, "I find it strange that such an ugly spot [on Templar’s robe], soiled by the fire, bears better witness than a man’s own lips† (212). For Nathan, friends do not concern themselves with social status, religious beliefs, or titles; but rather, they can distinguish between the man and the facade. In Nathan’s words, "are Jew and Christian, Jew and Christian first and human beings second?" (214). In Act II, Scene IV, Nathan makes an attempt to thank the Templar for fleeing Temptation on behalf of his daughter. In which the Templar replies, â€Å"You know how the Templars ought to think.† Seemingly shocked, Nathan says, â€Å"Templars alone? and merely ought?. . .I know how good men think; I know as well that all lands bear good men† (213). Nathan is not concerned with the Templar’s position which is a mere robe but with the man behind the guise. A Templar is one of many, but a man is one alone both individual and unique. Human nature is not bound by the mind but is shown through the heart in friendship.

Algebra As Thought Experiment :: Education Mathematics Learning Essays

Algebra As Thought Experiment ABSTRACT: This paper addresses the problem of understanding what mathematics contributes to the exceptional success of modern mathematical physics. I urge that we give up the Kantian construal of the division between mathematics (synthetic a priori) and physics (experimental), and that we ask instead how algebra helps synthetic a posteriori mathematics improve our ability to study the world. The theses suggested are: 1) Mathematical theories are about the empirical world, and are true or false just like other theories of empirical science. 2) The air of artificiality in mathematics lies exclusively in the use of algebraic method. 3) This method is constructive much like all fiction is, but this construction is for the purpose of experimental investigation of the physical world to the extent that anything in the world has objects like those in the fictional world of a particular algebra. 4) This is why algebraic techniques are successful even when the assumptions of the system are fal se: they may still be applicable to some things considered from some perspective. 5) The success of mathematical physics is also due to Descartes' discovery of a remarkable truth: we live in space and time which can be described as a whole. 6) Therefore, what distinguishes modern science from earlier and later philosophy is not a general method of science, but the fact that it happened to find a truth, and a particular way of studying reality which bore fruit. In the sixteenth century, physics was a part of the general subject known as philosophy. When Galileo wrote the Dialogues Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, he was commenting on some aspects of Aristotle's Philosophy. He was more favorable to the use of mathematics in various problems of physics than was current in his day. He may be described as trying to revive an Archimedean conception of motion in terms of geometry, which may be called "kinematics." Galileo also introduced the experimental method into physics. The experimental method had been very successfully utilized in Alchemy, which was a low or a clandestine science at the time. Its success in physics brought the issue of experimentation into the spot light. Since there are few claims original to Galileo that we may still wish to defend, we may want to describe his success as the introduction of these techniques which he invented or adapted for subsequent physicists to employ. Experimental techniques have improved considerably since Galileo's day.

The Language of the Mafia Essay -- Exploratory Essays Research Papers

The Language of the Mafia Mobspeak is a language that grows out of secrecy, and who can be more secret than the Mafia? The anti-social nature of the Mob is the perfect breeding ground for an "Antilanguage," which is, according to M. A. K. Halliday, a language that develops out of an antisociety which stands as a mode of resistance' to the society within which it exists (Butler 1). In his 1976 article, Halliday suggests that in these societies, a type of language forms in an effort to exclude outsiders for various reasons. One striking reason for the existence of an antilanguage is to hide the activities of the group. Halliday gives evidence for this claim through the existence of Elizabethan thieves cant, a form of communication derived in the Calcuttan underworld that thieves use to speak to one another without fear of incriminating themselves. Similarly, the Mafia -- which is often the target of FBI wire-taps -- requires its own thieves cant. The Mob constantly tries to hide its activities from the authorit ies. One way to accomplish this goal is to use somewhat cryptic vocabulary. For instance, there are over twenty words for the verb to kill'. If someone were to disrespect The Family' somebody might do a piece of work on' him. He could get whacked, erased, burned, clipped, iced, or hit -- just to name a few. In order to have a full understanding of the Mafia's unique use of language it is necessary to realize the context in which it is used. The Mafia's major business is providing "protection" for merchants in their territory. Basically, they insure that no other criminals will give any of their clients trouble. However, when anything comes under mob protection, the Mafia considers itself its "owner". They do not offer... ...English. Virtually everything the Mafia does has an impact on its language. Many defining characteristics of Mobspeak spawn from the illegal activities of the organization. They speak in codes due to a requisite for secrecy. The same applies in their unreserved overuse of profanity -- another way of expressing power. Their linguistic characteristics are a reflection of their roguish behavior and lifestyle. Overall, the language of the mafia is unique in that employs Halliday's ideas of an antilanguage in a modern sense. Sources Cited Butler, Todd. Exploring the Antilanguage of Gangster Rap. The Secol Review V. 19 (Spring 1995): 1-24 Le Vien, Douglas, Jr. and Juliet Papa. The Mafia Handbook. New York: Penguin Books, 1993 Pieggi, Nicholas. Wiseguy. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986 Pieggi, Nicholas. Casino. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995

Linguistics and Language Essay

The term dialect (from the ancient Greek word dialektos, â€Å"discourse†, from dia, â€Å"through† + lego, â€Å"I speak†) is used in two distinct ways, even by linguists. One usage refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language’s speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class. [2] A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect, a dialect that is associated with a particular ethnic group can be termed as ethnolect, and a regional dialect may be termed a regiolect or topolect. The other usage refers to a language that is socially subordinate to a regional or national standard language, often historically cognate to the standard, but not a variety of it or in any other sense derived from it. Dialect: This is a complex and often misunderstood concept. For linguists, a dialect is the collection of attributes (phonetic, phonological, syntactic, morphological, and semantic) that make one group of speakers noticeably different from another group of speakers of the same language. COMMON SOURCES OF MISUNDERSTANDING: 1) DIALECT is NOT a negative term for linguists. . Often times, for example, we hear people refer to non-standard varieties of English as â€Å"dialects†, usually to say something bad about the non-standard variety (and thus about the people who speak it). This happened quite a bit during last year’s ebonics controversy. But, the term dialect refers to ANY variety of a language. Thus, by definition, we all speak a dialect of our native language. 2) DIALECT is NOT synonymous with accent. Accent is only a part of dialectal variation. Non-linguists often think accents define a dialect (or that accents alone identify people as non-native or foreign language speakers). Also, non-linguists tend to think that it’s always the â€Å"other† people that have â€Å"an accent†. So, what is â€Å"accent†? 3) ACCENT: This term refers to phonological variation, i. e.variation in pronunciation Thus, if we talk about a Southern Accent; we’re talking about a generalized property of English pronunciation in the Southern part of the US. But, Southern dialects have more than particular phonological properties. Accent is thus about pronunciation, while dialect is a broader term encompassing syntactic, morphological, and semantic properties as well. A final note on accent. WE ALL HAVE ONE! There is no such thing as a person who speaks without an accent. This is not an exercise in political correctness, by the way. It is a fact. In sum, a dialect is a particular variety of a language, and we all have a dialect. Accent refers to the phonology of a given dialect. Since we all have a dialect, we all have an accent. Idiolect: Another term that we must be familiar with is idiolect. â€Å"What’s an idiolect? † you ask, on the edge of your seat. An idiolect is simply the technical term we use to refer to the variety of language spoken by each individual speaker of the language. Just as there is variation among groups of speakers of a language, there is variation from speaker to speaker. No two speakers of a language speak identically. Each speaks her or his own particular variety of that language. Each thus speaks her or his own idiolect. Role of Dialect: Language says a lot about our identity. Americans, Australians, New Zealanders and South Africans all speak differently. When we meet somebody from a different part of the country, they may use different words, sounds or grammatical structures. A dialect is a variety of language that is characteristic of a certain area. For instance, in the Northern Cape, people refer to older people as grootmense and paper as pampier whereas in Pretoria they are called oumense and papier. If you hear colored people from Cape Town speaking Afrikaans, they sound different to Afrikaans spoken elsewhere. People from Natal speak English in different ways to people from Johannesburg etc. So often, the way we speak says a lot about where we are from, who we are and what we care about. So studying dialects is one way of validating people’s identities and ways of life. Characteristics of Dialect: There are ten characteristics of dialect. 1. Dialect can be identified by variation of grammar. 2. Dialect can be identified by variation of vocabulary. 3. Dialect can be identified by variation of prosody. 4. Dialect can be identified by variation of sentence structure. 5. Dialect can be identified by variation of figures of speech. 6. Variance of parent language by social class of speakers. 7. Variance of parent language by region inhabited by speakers. 8. Likely will not have its own written literature. 9. Likely speakers will not have state or nation of their own. 10. Likely region-specific for speakers. Difference between Dialect and Register: To describe differences we have to first understand these two terms separately. What is Dialect? A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists: Cockney is a dialect of English. What is Register? In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. For example, when speaking in a formal setting, an English speaker may be more likely to adhere more closely to prescribed grammar, pronounce words ending in -ing with a velar nasal instead of an alveolar nasal (e.g. â€Å"walking†, not â€Å"walkin'†), choose more formal words (e. g. father vs. dad, child vs. kid, etc. ), and refrain from using contractions such as ain’t, than when speaking in an informal setting. Now it is time to differentiate both terms. A dialect is a variety of language used by different speech communities, whereas register is a variety of language associated with people’s occupation. Register is to do with variation in language use connected with topic matter. â€Å"One’s dialect shows who (or what) he/she is, while one’s register shows what he/she is doing†. Dialect is a special form of speaking belonging to a group. Register is a linguistic term used to describe changing how one talks based on the situation. 1. Dialect: a local variety of a language*, usually understood by speakers of other dialects of the same language, often without a standardized grammar or spelling, used mostly for non-formal purposes in a local community or among people coming from the same community but living in another community than that they came from. There is often no consensus if such a local language variety is a dialect or a language. The choice is usually taken on the basis of political or conventional criteria and never on linguistic ones. 2. A speech register: a way of speaking or writing including vocabulary, syntax and pronunciation (or spelling) chosen by individuals to express themselves depending on the circumstances they speak: high register (formal occasions like parliamentary speech, official documents, celebrations), low register (informal occasions, conversations among family or friends’ group). There are also many in-between registers and specialized occasions like religious services, sport events, and so on. An individual may choose his dialect as a speech register for informal occasions, and a standardized language of a larger social unit on formal occasions (often called diglossia). Register: In linguistics, one of many styles or varieties of language determined by such factors as social occasion, purpose, and audience, also called stylistic variation. More generally, register is used to indicate degrees of formality in language use. The different registers or language styles that we use are sometimes called codes. According to a linguist Robert MacNeil (1989) the example of Register is; â€Å"It fascinates me how differently we all speak in different circumstances. We have levels of formality, as in our clothing. There are very formal occasions, often requiring written English: the job application or the letter to the editor–the dark-suit, serious-tie language, with everything pressed and the lint brushed off. There is our less formal out-in-the-world language–a more comfortable suit, but still respectable. There is language for close friends in the evenings, on weekends–blue-jeans-and-sweat-shirt language, when it’s good to get the tie off. There is family language, even more relaxed, full of grammatical short cuts, family slang, echoes of old jokes that have become intimate shorthand–the language of pajamas and uncombed hair. Finally, there is the language with no clothes on; the talk of couples–murmurs, sighs, grunts–language at its least self-conscious, open, vulnerable, and primitive. † Role of Register: Its chief importance is social. It signals the kind of interaction the speaker wants, or acceptance/no acceptance of the kind of interaction expected in any situation. For instance, level of formality is a major aspect of English register. Highly formal register can signal authority, disapproval, unfriendliness. Informal register can signal various things: genuine friendliness; a fake attempt to come across as friendly; or even deliberate disrespect if the other speaker expects formal register. Choice of register can also signal social class, in areas where this is still an issue. Higher classes tend to use a more formal register in ordinary conversation. Understanding the difference between register and grammar is important, as many speakers confuse the two: particularly in thinking that only formal register is correct grammar. This can lead to major errors of register: for instance, the highly formal â€Å"It is I† is only correct in the most formal register, and using it under any other circumstances will make a speaker sound a pompous idiot to most speakers. Characteristics/ Features of Register: 1) Language Styles â€Å"Every native speaker is normally in command of several different language styles, sometimes called registers, which are varied according to the topic under discussion, the formality of the occasion, and the medium used (speech, writing, or sign). â€Å"Adapting language to suit the topic is a fairly straightforward matter. Many activities have a specialized vocabulary. If you are playing a ball game, you need to know that ‘zero’ is a duck in cricket, love in tennis, and nil in soccer. If you have a drink with friends in a pub, you need to know greetings such as: Cheers! Here’s to your good health! â€Å"Other types of variation are less clear-cut. The same person might utter any of the following three sentences, depending on the circumstances: I should be grateful if you would make less noise. Please be quiet. Shut up! Here the utterances range from a high or formal style, down to a low or informal one–and the choice of a high or low style is partly a matter of politeness. † (Jean Aitcheson, Teach You Linguistics. Hodder, 2003) 2) Participants in an Exchange â€Å"Like variation in our manner of dress, stylistic variations in language cannot be judged as appropriate or not without reference to the participants in the interchange (i. e. , speaker and listener or reader and writer). For example, you would not speak to a 5-year-old child, an intimate friend, and a professor using the same style of speech. Using the term eleemosynary ‘charitable’ would probably be inappropriate for the child and the friend, while using number one ‘urinate’ would probably be inappropriate for the friend and the professor. † (Frank Parker and Kathryn Riley, Linguistics for Non-Linguists, 3rd ed. Ellyn & Bacon, 1999) 3) Register Features â€Å"Register features are core lexical and grammatical characteristics found to some extent in almost all texts and registers. . . . â€Å"Any linguistic feature having a functional or conventional association can be distributed in a way that distinguishes among registers. Such features come from many linguistic classes, including: phonological features (pauses, intonation patterns), tense and aspect markers, pronouns and pro-verbs, questions, nominal forms (nouns, nominalizations, gerunds), passive constructions, dependent clauses (complement clauses, relative clauses, adverbial subordination), prepositional phrases, adjectives, adverbs, measures of lexical specificity (once-occurring words, type-token ratio), lexical classes (hedges, emphatics, discourse particles, stance markers), modals, specialized verb classes (speech act verbs, mental process verbs), reduced forms (contractions, that-deletions), co-ordination, negation, and grammatical devices for structuring information (clefts, extra position). â€Å" A comprehensive linguistic analysis of a register requires consideration of a representative selection of linguistic features. Analyses of these register features are necessarily quantitative, because the associated register distinctions are based on differences in the relative distribution of linguistic features. † (Douglas Biber Dimensions of Register Variation: A Cross-Linguistic Comparison. Cambridge University Press, 1995) Sociolinguistics: (Wikipedia) â€Å"Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society. Sociolinguistics differs from sociology of language in that the focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of the society on the language, while the sociology of language focuses on language’s effect on the society. Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree with pragmatics. It is historically closely related to linguistic anthropology and the distinction between the two fields has even been questioned recently. It also studies how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social variables, e. g. , ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc. , and how creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social or socioeconomic classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to place; language usage also varies among social classes, and it is these sociolect that sociolinguistics studies. † Sociolinguistics is the study of how language serves and is shaped by the social nature of human beings. In its broadest conception, sociolinguistics analyzes the many and diverse ways in which language and society entwine. This vast field of inquiry requires and combines insights from a number of disciplines, including linguistics, sociology, psychology and anthropology. Sociolinguistics examines the interplay of language and society, with language as the starting point. Variation is the key concept, applied to language itself and to its use. The basic premise of sociolinguistics is that language is variable and changing. As a result, language is not homogeneous — not for the individual user and not within or among groups of speakers who use the same language. By studying written records, sociolinguists also examine how language and society have interacted in the past. For example, they have tabulated the frequency of the singular pronoun thou and its replacement you in dated hand-written or printed documents and correlated changes in frequency with changes in class structure in 16th and 17th century England. This is historical sociolinguistics: the study of relationship between changes in society and changes in language over a period of time. Branches of sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics can be defined broadly or narrowly – Broad: branch of linguistics studying those properties of language which require reference to social, including contextual, factors in their explanation Narrow: seeks to explain patterned co-variation of language and society; seeks rules to account for that variation. Some traditions of sociolinguistic investigation: 1) Linguistic variation: (sociolinguistics proper): focuses on the linguistic variable that correlates with social differences. Unit of study is language itself considered a part of linguistics. 2) Ethnography of speaking: emphasis on various aspects of context that are involved in differing interpretations of language use. Unit of analysis is not language itself but rather the users of language: the speech community generally considered part of sociology or anthropology. 3) Language planning (also applied sociolinguistics, sociology of language): emphasis on practical aspects of this study. Much about language contact issues and language use in education.